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THE HISTORY OF CIA REGIME CHANGE

The Rockefeller Council on Foreign Relations/UN Syndicate are the hidden and guiding force behind CIA regime change and the ultimate destruction of borders and nation states to create a corporate controlled global government that controls all aspect of human life. A “sustainable” “green” world of carbon taxes, mandatory vaccinations and a cashless microchipped society.

1945–1949: China

Main article: Operation Beleaguer

The U.S. government provided military, logistical and other aid to the National Revolutionary Army led by Chiang Kai-shek‘s Nationalist government in its civil war against the indigenous communist People’s Liberation Army (PLA) led by Mao Zedong.

Both the KMT and the PLA were fighting against Japanese occupation forces, until the Japanese surrender to the United States in August 1945. This surrender brought to an end the Japanese Puppet state of Manchukuo and the Japanese-dominated Wang Jingwei regime.^[74]

After the Japanese surrender, the US continued to support the KMT against the PLA. The US airlifted many KMT troops from central China to Manchuria. Approximately 50,000 U.S. troops were sent to guard strategic sites in Hubei and Shandong. The U.S. trained and equipped KMT troops, and also transported Korean troops and even Imperial Japanese Army troops back to help KMT forces fight, and ultimately lose, against the People’s Liberation Army.^[75]

President Harry Truman justified deploying the very Japanese occupying army under whose boot the Chinese people had suffered so terribly to fight against the Chinese communists in this way: “It was perfectly clear to us that if we told the Japanese to lay down their arms immediately and march to the seaboard, the entire country would be taken over by the Communists.

We therefore had to take the unusual step of using the enemy as a garrison until we could airlift Chinese National troops to South China and send Marines to guard the seaports.”^[76] Within less than two years after the Second Sino-Japanese War, the KMT had received $4.43 billion from the United States—most of which was military aid.^[75][77]

1947–1949: Greece

Main article: Greek Civil War

Greece had been under Axis occupation since 1941. Its government-in-exile, unelected and loyal to King George II, was based in Cairo. By the Summer of 1944, communist guerrillas, then known as the Greek People’s Liberation Army (ELAS), who had been armed by the Western powers, exploiting the gradual collapse of the Axis, claimed to have liberated nearly all of Greece outside of Athens from Axis occupation, while also attacking and defeating rival non-Communist partisan groups, forming a rival unelected government, the Political Committee of National Liberation. On 12 August 1944, German forces retreated from the Athens area two days ahead of British landings there, ending the occupation.

The British Armed Forces together with Greek forces under control of the Greek government (now a government of national unity led by Konstantinos Tsaldaris, elected in the 1946 Greek legislative election boycotted by the Communist Party of Greece) then fought for control of the country in the Greek Civil War against the communists, who at that time were self-proclaimed as the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). By early 1947, the British government could no longer afford the huge cost of financing the war against DSE, and pursuant to the October 1944 Percentages Agreement between Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin, Greece was to remain part of the Western sphere of influence. Accordingly, the British requested the US government to step in and the U.S. flooded the country with military equipment, military advisers and weapons.^[78]^{: 553–554}^[79]^: 129^[80]^[81] With increased U.S. military aid, by September 1949 the government eventually won, fully restoring the Kingdom of Greece.^[82]^{: 616–617}

1948: Costa Rica

Main article: Costa Rican Civil War

Christian socialist medic Rafael Ángel Calderón Guardia of the National Republican Party reached power through democratic means in 1944, promoting a general social reform and allied to the Costa Rican Communist Party.^[83] Tensions between government and the opposition, supported by the CIA, caused the short-lived Costa Rican Civil War of 1948 that ended Calderón’s government and led to the short de facto rule of 18 months by José Figueres Ferrer.^[83] However, Figueres also held some left-leaning ideas and continued the process of social reform.^[33] After the war, democracy was quickly restored and a two-party system encompassed by the parties of the Calderonistas and Figueristas developed in the country for nearly 60 years.^[33]

1949–1953: Albania

1949: Syria

Main article: March 1949 Syrian coup d’état

The government of Shukri al-Quwatli, reelected in 1948, was overthrown by a junta led by the Syrian Army chief of staff at the time, Husni al-Za’im, who became President of Syria on April 11, 1949. Za’im had extensive connections to CIA operatives,^[87] although the exact nature of U.S. involvement in the coup remains highly controversial.^[88]^[89]^[90] The construction of the Trans-Arabian Pipeline, which had been held up in the Syrian parliament, was approved by Za’im, the new president, just over a month after the coup.^[91]

1950s

1950–1953: Burma and China

The Chinese Civil War had recently ended, with the communists winning and the nationalists losing. The nationalists retreated to areas such as Taiwan and north Burma.^{[citation needed]}

In Operation Paper, which began in late 1950^[92] or early 1951 following Chinese involvement in the Korean War,^[93] the CIA hired Chinese nationalist militants from Taiwan and transported them to the Union of Burma, reinforcing the Kuomintang insurgency. The insurgency was also known as the Yunnan Province Army. The nationalists were flown via the Civil Air Transport (CAT, later named Air America), an airline co-owned and operated by the CIA and the Kuomintang in Taiwan.^{[citation needed]}

Operation Paper entailed CIA plans used by CIA military advisors on the ground in Burma to assist Kuomintang incursions into Western China over several years, under the command of General Li Mi, with Kuomintang leadership hoping to eventually retake China, despite opposition from the US State Department.^[94] However, each attempted invasion was repelled by the Chinese army. The Kuomintang took control of large swaths of Burma, while the government of Burma complained repeatedly of the military invasion to the United Nations.^[95]

On secret flights from Thailand to Burma, CAT aircraft flown by pilots hired by the CIA brought American weapons and other supplies to the Kuomintang and on return flights the CAT aircraft transported opium from the Kuomintang to Chinese organized crime drug traffickers in Bangkok, Thailand.^[95]^[96]

1952: Egypt

Main articles: Egyptian revolution of 1952 and Project FF

In February 1952, following January’s riots in Cairo amid widespread nationalist discontent over the continued British occupation of the Suez Canal and Egypt’s defeat in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, CIA officer Kermit Roosevelt Jr. was dispatched by the State Department to meet with Farouk I of the Kingdom of Egypt. American policy at that time was to convince Farouk to introduce reforms that would weaken the appeal of Egyptian radicals and stabilize Farouk’s grip on power. The U.S. was notified in advance of the successful July coup led by nationalist and anti-communist Egyptian military officers (the “Free Officers”) that replaced the Egyptian monarchy with the Republic of Egypt under the leadership of Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser. CIA officer Miles Copeland Jr. recounted in his memoirs that Roosevelt helped coordinate the coup during three prior meetings with the plotters (including Nasser, the future Egyptian president); this has not been confirmed by declassified documents but is partially supported by circumstantial evidence. Roosevelt and several of the Egyptians said to have been present in these meetings denied Copeland’s account; another U.S. official, William Lakeland, said its veracity is open to question. Hugh Wilford notes that “whether or not the CIA dealt directly with the Free Officers prior to their July 1952 coup, there was extensive secret American-Egyptian contact in the months after the revolution.”^[97]^[98]

1952: Guatemala

Main article: Operation PBFortune

Operation PBFortune, also known as Operation Fortune, was a covert United States operation to overthrow the democratically elected Guatemalan President Jacobo Árbenz in 1952. The operation was authorized by U.S. President Harry Truman and planned by the Central Intelligence Agency. The United Fruit Company had lobbied intensively for the overthrow because land reform initiated by Árbenz threatened its economic interests. The US also feared that the government of Árbenz was being influenced by communists.

The coup attempt was planned with the support of the United Fruit Company, and of Anastasio Somoza García, Rafael Trujillo and Marcos Pérez Jiménez, the US-backed right-wing dictators of Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela respectively, who felt threatened by the democratic Guatemalan Revolution, and had sought to undermine it. The plan involved providing weapons to the exiled Guatemalan military officer Carlos Castillo Armas, who was to lead an invasion from Nicaragua.

1952–1953: Iran

Main article: 1953 Iranian coup d’état

Since 1944, Iran was a constitutional monarchy ruled by the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. From the discovery of oil in Iran in the late nineteenth century major powers exploited the weakness of the Iranian government to obtain concessions that many believed failed to give Iran a fair share of the profits. During World War II, the UK, the USSR and the US all became involved in Iranian affairs, including the joint Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941. Iranian officials began to notice that British taxes were increasing while royalties to Iran declined. By 1948, Britain received substantially more revenue from the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC) than Iran. Negotiations to meet this and other Iranian concerns exacerbated rather than eased tensions.^[99]

On March 15, 1951 the Majlis, the Iranian parliament, passed legislation championed by reformist politician Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the AIOC. The senate approved the measure two days later. Fifteen months later, Mosadegh was elected Prime Minister by the Majlis. International business concerns then boycotted oil from the nationalized Iranian oil industry. This contributed to concerns in Britain and the US that Mosadegh might be a communist. He was reportedly supported by the Communist Tudeh Party.^[100]

The CIA began supporting 18 of their favorite candidates in the 1952 Iranian legislative election, which Mosaddegh suspended after urban deputies loyal to him were elected.^[101] The new parliament gave Mosaddegh emergency powers which weakened the power of the Shah, and there was a constitutional struggle over the roles of the Shah and prime minister. Britain strongly backed the Shah, while the US remained neutral. However, America’s position shifted in late 1952 with the election of Eisenhower as U.S. president. The CIA launched Operation Ajax, directed by Kermit Roosevelt Jr., to remove Mosaddegh by persuading the Shah to replace him, using diplomacy and bribery. The 1953 Iranian coup d’état (known in Iran as the “28 Mordad coup”)^[102] orchestrated by the intelligence agencies of the United Kingdom (under the name “Operation Boot”) and the United States (under the name “TPAJAX Project”)^[103]^[104]^[105]^[106] replaced Mosaddegh with the CIA’s choice, General Fazlollah Zahedi, through decrees dictated by the CIA’s Donald Wilber.

The coup saw the transition of Pahlavi from a constitutional monarch to an authoritarian, who relied heavily on United States government support. That support dissipated during the Iranian Revolution of 1979, as his own security forces refused to shoot into non-violent crowds.^[107] The CIA did not admit its responsibility until the 60th anniversary of the coup in August 2013.^[108]

1954: Guatemala

Main article: 1954 Guatemalan coup d’état

1956–1957: Syria

1957–1959: Indonesia

Starting in 1957, Eisenhower ordered the CIA to overthrow Sukarno. The CIA supported the failed Permesta Rebellion by rebel Indonesian military officers in February 1958. CIA pilots, such as Allen Lawrence Pope, piloted planes operated by CIA front organization Civil Air Transport (CAT) that bombed civilian and military targets in Indonesia. The CIA instructed CAT pilots to target commercial shipping in order to frighten foreign merchant ships away from Indonesian waters, thereby weakening the Indonesian economy and thus destabilizing the government of Indonesia. The CIA aerial bombardment resulted in the sinking of several commercial ships^[123] and the bombing of a marketplace that killed many civilians.^[124] Pope was shot down and captured on 18 May 1958, revealing U.S. involvement, which Eisenhower publicly denied at the time. The rebellion was ultimately defeated by 1961.^[125]^[126]

1959–1963: South Vietnam

Main articles: War in Vietnam (1959–1963), 1963 South Vietnamese coup, Arrest and assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem, and Buddhist crisis

In 1959 a branch of the Worker’s Party of Vietnam was formed in the south of the country and began an insurgency against the Republic of Vietnam.^[127] They were supplied through Group 559, which was formed the same year by North Vietnam to send weapons down the Ho Chi Minh Trail.^[128][129] The US supported the RoV against the communists. After the 1960 US election, President John F. Kennedy became much more involved with the fight against the insurgency.^[130]

Location of South Vietnam

From mid-1963, the Kennedy administration became increasingly frustrated with South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem‘s corrupt and repressive rule and his persecution of the Buddhist majority. In light of Diem’s refusal to adopt reforms, American officials debated whether they should support efforts to replace him. These debates crystallized after the ARVN Special Forces, which took their orders directly from the palace, raided Buddhist temples across the country, leaving a death toll estimated in the hundreds, and resulted in the dispatch of Cable 243 on August 24, 1963, which instructed United States Ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., to “examine all possible alternative leadership and make detailed plans as to how we might bring about Diem’s replacement if this should become necessary”. Lodge and his liaison officer, Lucien Conein, contacted discontented Army of the Republic of Vietnam officers and gave assurances that the US would not oppose a coup or respond with aid cuts. These efforts culminated in a coup d’état on November 1–2, 1963, during which Diem and his brother were assassinated.^[131] By the end of 1963 the Viet Cong switched to a much more aggressive strategy in fighting the Southern government and the US.

The Pentagon Papers concluded that “Beginning in August of 1963 we variously authorized, sanctioned and encouraged the coup efforts of the Vietnamese generals and offered full support for a successor government. In October we cut off aid to Diem in a direct rebuff, giving a green light to the generals. We maintained clandestine contact with them throughout the planning and execution of the coup and sought to review their operational plans and proposed new government.”^[132]

1959–1962: Cuba

Main articles: Cuban Project, Bay of Pigs Invasion, and Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro

Location of Bay of Pigs in Cuba

General Fulgencio Batista was a military dictator who seized power in Cuba in March 1952 and was backed by the U.S. government until March 1958. His regime was overthrown on December 31, 1958, thus bringing an end to the Cuban Revolution that was led by Fidel Castro and his 26th of July Movement. Castro became President in February 1959. The CIA backed a force composed of CIA-trained Cuban exiles to invade Cuba with support and equipment from the US military, in an attempt to overthrow Castro’s government. The invasion was launched in April 1961, three months after John F. Kennedy assumed the presidency in the United States, but the Cuban armed forces defeated the invading combatants within three days.^[133]

Operation MONGOOSE was a year-long U.S. government effort to overthrow the government of Cuba.^[134] The operation included economic warfare, including an embargo against Cuba, “to induce failure of the Communist regime to supply Cuba’s economic needs”, a diplomatic initiative to isolate Cuba, and psychological operations “to turn the peoples’ resentment increasingly against the regime.”^[135] The economic warfare prong of the operation also included the infiltration of CIA operatives to carry out many acts of sabotage against civilian targets, such as a railway bridge, a molasses storage facilities, an electric power plant, and the sugar harvest, notwithstanding Cuba’s repeated requests to the United States government to cease its armed operations.^[136]^[135] In addition, the CIA planned a number of assassination attempts against Fidel Castro, head of government of Cuba, including attempts that entailed CIA collaboration with the American mafia.^[137]^[138]^[139] In April 2021, documents released by the National Security Archive showed that the CIA was also involved in a plot to assassinate Raúl Castro in 1960.^[140]

Having first imposed an embargo on the sale of arms to Cuba in March 1958, during the Batista dictatorship,^[141] Eisenhower imposed further sanctions on October 19, 1960, after Cuba nationalized the U.S.-owned Cuban oil refineries without compensation. This new embargo resulted in all exports to Cuba other than food and medicine being blocked from getting onto the island.^[142] On February 7, 1962, Kennedy extended the embargo to include almost all exports,^[143] which continues to this day. Donald Trump added more than two hundred sanctions during his administration,^[144] and reclassified the country as a state sponsor of terrorism shortly before leaving office in January 2021,^[145] overturning a move by his predecessor, Barack Obama, in May 2015.^[146]

The United Nations General Assembly has passed a resolution every year since 1992 demanding an end to the embargo, with the US and Israel being the only nations to consistently vote against the resolutions.^[147]

1960s

1960–1965: Congo-Leopoldville

Main articles: Patrice Lumumba and Congo Crisis

Patrice Lumumba was elected the first Prime Minister of the Republic of the Congo, now the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in May 1960, and in June 1960, the country achieved full independence from Belgium. In July, the Congo Crisis erupted with a mutiny among army, followed by the regions Katanga and South Kasai succeeding with support from Belgium, who wished to keep power over resources in the region. Lumumba called in the United Nations to help him, but the U.N. force only agreed to keep peace and not stop the separatist movements. Lumumba then agreed to receive help from the USSR in order to stop the separatists, worrying the United States, due to the supply of uranium in the country. At first, The Eisenhower Administration planned to poison him with his toothpaste, but this was abandoned.^[148] The CIA sent official Sydney Gottlieb with a poison to liaison with an African CIA asset code-named WI/Rogue who was to assassinate Lumumba, but Lumumba went into hiding before the operation was completed.^[149] The United States encouraged Mobutu Sese Seko, a colonel in the army, to overthrow him, which he did on September 14, 1960. After being locked in prison, Mobutu sent him to Katanga, and he was executed soon after on January 17, 1961.^[150]^[151]

After Lumumba was killed, the US began funding Mobutu in order to secure him against the separatists and opposition. Many of Lumumba’s supporters went east and formed the Free Republic of the Congo with its capital in Stanleyville in opposition to Mobutu’s government. Eventually, the government in Stanleyville agreed to rejoin with the Leopoldville government under the latter’s rule,^[152]^[153] however in 1963, Lumumba supporters formed another separate government in the east of the country and launched the Simba rebellion. The rebellion had support from the Soviet Union and many other countries in the Eastern Bloc.^[154] In November 1964, the U.S. and Belgium launched Operation Dragon Rouge to rescue hostages taken by Simba rebels in Stanleyville. The operation was a success and expelled the Simba rebels from the city, leaving them in disarray. The Simbas were ultimately defeated the following year by the Congolese army.^[155]^[156]

After the March 1965 elections, Mobutu Sese Seko launched a second coup in November with the support of the U.S. and other powers. Mobutu Sese Seko claimed democracy would return in five years and he was popular initially.^[157] However, he instead took increasingly authoritarian powers eventually becoming the dictator of the country.^[157]

1960: Laos

Main articles: Laotian Civil War and 1960 Laotian coups

On August 9, 1960, Captain Kong Le with his Royal Lao Army paratroop battalion seized control of the administrative capital city of Vientiane in a bloodless coup on a “neutralist” platform with the stated aims of ending the civil war raging in Laos, ending foreign interference in the country, ending the corruption caused by foreign aid, and better treatment for soldiers.^[158]^[159] With CIA support, Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat, the Prime Minister of Thailand, set up a covert Royal Thai Armed Forces advisory group, called Kaw Taw. Kaw Taw together with the CIA backed a November 1960 counter-coup against the new Neutralist government in Vientiane, supplying artillery, artillerymen, and advisers to General Phoumi Nosavan, first cousin of Sarit. It also deployed the Police Aerial Reinforcement Unit (PARU) to operations within Laos, sponsored by the CIA.^[160] With the help of CIA front organization Air America to airlift war supplies and with other U.S. military assistance and covert aid from Thailand, General Phoumi Nosavan’s forces captured Vientiane in November 1960.^[161]^[162]

1961: Dominican Republic

Main article: Rafael Trujillo

Trujillo in 1952

In May 1961, the ruler of the Dominican Republic, Rafael Trujillo was murdered with weapons supplied by the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).^[163]^[164] An internal CIA memorandum states that a 1973 Office of Inspector General investigation into the murder disclosed “quite extensive Agency involvement with the plotters.” The CIA described its role in “changing” the government of the Dominican Republic as a ‘success’ in that it assisted in moving the Dominican Republic from a totalitarian dictatorship to a Western-style democracy.”^[165]^[166] Juan Bosch, an earlier recipient of CIA funding, was elected president of the Dominican Republic in 1962 and was deposed in 1963.^[167]

1961–1964: Brazil

Main articles: Brazil–United States relations during the João Goulart administration and 1964 Brazilian coup d’état

When Jânio Quadros, President of Brazil elected in 1960, resigned in August 1961, he was succeeded by Vice President João Goulart, despite the strong opposition of conservative powers within the military who tried to veto his rule.^[168] Goulart was a proponent of democratic rights, the legalization of the Communist Party of Brazil, and economic and land reforms, but the US government insisted that he established a program of economic austerity. The United States government implemented a plan to destabilise the country, code named Operation Brother Sam, by cutting off aid to the Brazilian federal government, providing aid to state governors of Brazil who opposed the new president, and encouraging senior Brazilian Armed Forces officers to seize power and to back army chief of staff General Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco.^[168]^[169] General Branco led the April 1964 overthrow of Goulart’s government, bringing to an end the Fourth Brazilian Republic, and was installed as first president of the military regime, while the US government expressed approval and re-instituted aid and investment in the country.^[170]

1963: Iraq

Main article: Ramadan Revolution

Several sources, notably Said Aburish, have alleged that the February 1963 coup that resulted in the formation of a Ba’athist government in Iraq was “masterminded” by the CIA.^[171] No declassified U.S. documents have verified this allegation.^[172] However, senior National Security Council official Robert Komer wrote to President John F. Kennedy on February 8, 1963 that the Iraqi coup “is almost certainly a net gain for our side … CIA had excellent reports on the plotting, but I doubt either they or UK should claim much credit for it.”^[173] Brandon Wolfe-Hunnicutt states that “Scholars remain divided in their interpretations of American foreign policy toward the February 1963 coup in Iraq,” but cites “compelling evidence of an American role in the coup.”^[174]

Tareq Y. Ismael, Jacqueline S. Ismael, and Glenn E. Perry state that “Ba’thist forces and army officers overthrew Qasim on February 8, 1963, in collaboration with the CIA.”^[175] Conversely, Bryan R. Gibson argues that “the preponderance of evidence substantiates the conclusion that the CIA was not behind the February 1963 Ba’thist coup.”^[176] The U.S. offered material support to the new Ba’athist government after the coup, amidst an anti-communist purge and Iraqi atrocities against Kurdish rebels and civilians.^[177] Because of this, Nathan Citino asserts: “Although the United States did not initiate the 14 Ramadan coup, at best it condoned and at worst it contributed to the violence that followed.”^[178] The Ba’athist government collapsed in November 1963 over the question of unification with Syria (where a rival branch of the Ba’ath Party had seized power in March).^[179]

There has been a great deal of academic discussion regarding allegations from King Hussein of Jordan and others that the CIA (or other U.S. agencies) provided the Ba’athist government with lists of communists and other leftists, who were then arrested or killed by the Ba’ath Party’s militia—the National Guard.^[180] Gibson and Hanna Batatu emphasize that the identities of Iraqi Communist Party members were publicly known and that the Ba’ath would not have needed to rely on U.S. intelligence to identify them, whereas Citino considers the allegations plausible because the U.S. embassy in Iraq had actually compiled such lists, and because Iraqi National Guard members involved in the purge received training in the U.S.^[181]^[182]^[183]

1965–1967: Indonesia

Main article: Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66

Junior army officers and the commander of the palace guard of President Sukarno accused senior Indonesian National Armed Forces brass of planning a CIA-backed coup against President Sukarno and killed six senior generals on October 1, 1965. General Suharto and other senior military officers attacked the junior officers on the same day and accused the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) of planning the killing of the six generals.^[184] The army launched a propaganda campaign based on lies and riled up civilian mobs to attack those believed to be PKI supporters and other political opponents. Indonesian government forces with collaboration of some civilians perpetrated mass killings over many months. Scholars estimate the number of civilians killed range from a half million to over a million.^[185]^[186]^[187] US Ambassador Marshall Green encouraged the military leaders to act forcefully against the political opponents.^[188]

In 2017, declassified documents from the U.S. Embassy in Jakarta have confirmed that the US had knowledge of, facilitated and encouraged mass killings for its own geopolitical interests.^[189]^[190]^[191]^[192] US diplomats admitted to journalist Kathy Kadane in 1990 that they had provided the Indonesian army with thousands of names of alleged PKI supporters and other alleged leftists, and that the U.S. officials then checked off from their lists those who had been murdered.^[193]^[194] President Sukarno’s base of support was largely annihilated, imprisoned and the remainder terrified, and thus he was forced out of power in 1967, replaced by an authoritarian military regime led by General Suharto.^[195]^[196] Historian John Roosa states that “almost overnight the Indonesian government went from being a fierce voice for cold war neutrality and anti-imperialism to a quiet, compliant partner of the US world order.”^[197]^: 158 This campaign is considered a major turning point in the Cold War, and was such a success that it served as a model for other U.S.-backed coups and anti-communist extermination campaigns throughout Asia and Latin America.^[192]^[197]

1970s

1970: Cambodia

Main articles: Cambodian Civil War and 1970 Cambodian coup d’état

Prince Norodom Sihanouk, who came to power by the 1955 parliamentary election, had for years kept Cambodia out of the Vietnam War by being friendly with China and North Vietnam, and had integrated left wing parties into mainstream politics. However, a leftist uprising occurred in 1967 and the communist Khmer Rouge began an insurgency against the prince the following year.^[198] Following the 1968 Tet Offensive, Sihanouk became convinced that North Vietnam was going to lose the war so he improved relations with the United States. Henry Kissinger suggested that Sihanouk approved U.S. bombing of North Vietnamese targets in Cambodia in 1969, although this has been heavily disputed by other sources.^[199]^[200]

In March 1970 Sihanouk was deposed by right-wing General Lon Nol following a vote of no confidence in Cambodia’s National Assembly. The overthrow followed Cambodia’s constitutional process and most accounts emphasize the primacy of Cambodian actors in Sihanouk’s removal. Historians are divided about the extent of U.S. involvement in or foreknowledge of the ouster, but an emerging consensus posits some culpability on the part of U.S. military intelligence.^[201] There is evidence that “as early as late 1968” Lon Nol floated the idea of a coup to U.S. military intelligence to obtain U.S. consent and military support for action against Prince Sihanouk and his government.^[202] The coup further destabilized the country and ushered in years of civil war between the right-wing Khmer Republic backed by intensified U.S. bombing and Khmer Rouge forces backed by the People’s Army of Vietnam. The communists eventually took Phnom Penh, winning the civil war and establishing Democratic Kampuchea.^[203]

1970–1973: Chile

Main articles: Salvador Allende and 1973 Chilean coup d’état

Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet government funded the Communist Party of Chile at a rate of between $50,000 and $400,000 annually.^[204]

The U.S. government ran a psy ops action in Chile from 1963 until the coup d’état in 1973, and the CIA was involved in every Chilean election during that time. In the 1964 Chilean presidential election, the U.S. government supplied $2.6 million in funding to Christian Democratic Party presidential candidate Eduardo Frei Montalva, to prevent Salvador Allende and the Socialist Party of Chile winning. The U.S. also used the CIA to provide $12 million in funding to business interests for use in harming Allende’s reputation.^[205]^: 38–9 Kristian C. Gustafson wrote:

It was clear the Soviet Union was operating in Chile to ensure Marxist success, and from the contemporary American point of view, the United States was required to thwart this enemy influence: Soviet money and influence were clearly going into Chile to undermine its democracy, so U.S. funding would have to go into Chile to frustrate that pernicious influence.^[204]

Prior to Allende’s inauguration, chief of staff of the Chilean Army, René Schneider, a general dedicated to preserving the constitutional order and considered “a major stumbling block for military officers seeking to carry out a coup”, was targeted in a failed CIA backed kidnapping attempt by General Camilo Valenzuela on October 19, 1970. Schneider was killed three days later in another botched kidnapping attempt led by General Roberto Viaux.^[206]^[207] After the inauguration, there followed an extended period of social and political unrest between the right-dominated Congress of Chile and Allende, as well as economic warfare waged by Washington. U.S. President Richard Nixon had promised to “make the economy scream” to “prevent Allende from coming to power or to unseat him”.^[208]

On September 11, 1973, President Allende was overthrown by the Chilean Armed Forces and National Police, bringing to power the regime of Augusto Pinochet. The CIA, through Project FUBELT (also known as Track II), worked secretly to prepare the conditions for the coup. While the U.S. initially denied any involvement, many relevant documents have been declassified in the decades since.^[208]

1971: Bolivia

Main articles: Juan José Torres and Operation Condor

The U.S. government supported the 1971 coup led by General Hugo Banzer that toppled President Juan José Torres of Bolivia, who had himself come to power in a coup the previous year.^[209]^[210] Torres had displeased Washington by convening an “Asamblea del Pueblo” (People’s Assembly or Popular Assembly), in which representatives of specific worker sectors of society were represented (miners, unionized teachers, students, peasants), and more generally by leading the country in what was perceived as a left wing direction.^{[citation needed]}

Banzer hatched a military uprising starting on August 18, 1971 that succeeded in taking the reins of power by August 22. The U.S. subsequently provided extensive military and other aid to the Banzer dictatorship.^[211] Torres, who had fled Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated in 1976 as part of Operation Condor,^[211] the U.S.-supported campaign of political repression and state terrorism by South American right-wing dictators.^{[212][213][214]}

Ethiopia pre-Eritrean independence

1974–1991: Ethiopia

1975–1991: Angola

1975–1999: East Timor

On December 7, 1975, nine days after declaring independence from Portugal, East Timor was invaded by Indonesia. Whilst it was under the pretext of anti-colonialism, the actual aim of the invasion was to overthrow the Fretilin regime that emerged previous year.^[242]^[243] The day before the invasion, U.S. President Gerald Ford and Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger met with General Suharto, who told them of his intention to invade East Timor. Ford replied, “[W]e will understand and not press you on the issue. We understand the problem you have and the intentions you have.”^[244] Ford endorsed the invasion as he saw East Timor as of little significance, overshadowed by Indonesia–United States relations.^[245] The fall of Saigon earlier in 1975 had left Indonesia as the most important U.S. ally in Southeast Asia, so Ford reasoned that it was in the national interest to side with Indonesia.^[246]

American weapons were crucial to Indonesia during the invasion,^[247] with the majority of military equipment used by Indonesian military units involved being U.S. supplied.^[248] United States military aid to Indonesia continued during its occupation of East Timor, which ended in 1999 with East Timor’s independence referendum.^[249] In 2005, the final Commission for Reception, Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor wrote that “[U.S.] political and military support were fundamental to the invasion and occupation of East Timor”.^[244]^[250]

1976: Argentina

Jorge Rafael Videla meeting Jimmy Carter in 1977

The Argentine Armed Forces overthrew President Isabel Perón, elected in the 1973 presidential election, in the 1976 Argentine coup d’état, starting the military dictatorship of General Jorge Rafael Videla known as the National Reorganization Process until 1983. Both the coup and the following authoritarian regime were endorsed and supported by the U.S. government^[251]^[252]^[253] with Henry Kissinger paying several official visits to Argentina during the dictatorship.^[254]^[255]^[256] According to Spanish judge Baltasar Garzón, Kissinger was a witness to the regime’s crimes against humanity.^[257]

1979–1992: Afghanistan

Main articles: CIA activities in Afghanistan and Operation Cyclone

In 1978, the Saur Revolution brought the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan to power, a one-party state backed by the Soviet Union. In what was known as Operation Cyclone, the U.S. government provided weapons and funding for a collection of warlords and several factions of jihadi guerrillas known as the Afghan mujahideen fighting to overthrow the Afghan government. The program began modestly with $695,000 in nominally “non-lethal” aid to the mujahideen on July 3, 1979 and escalated following the December 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.^[258]^[259] Through the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) of neighboring Pakistan the U.S. channeled training, weapons, and money for Afghan fighters.^[260]^[261]^[262]^[263] The first CIA-supplied weapons were antique British Lee–Enfield rifles shipped out in December 1979, but by September 1986 the program included U.S.-origin state of the art weaponry, such as FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, some 2,300 of which were ultimately shipped into Afghanistan.^[264]

Afghan Arabs also “benefited indirectly from the CIA’s funding, through the ISI and resistance organizations.”^[265]^[266] Some of the CIA’s greatest Afghan beneficiaries were Islamist commanders such as Jalaluddin Haqqani and Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, who were key allies of Osama bin Laden over many years.^[267]^[268]^[269] Some of the CIA-funded militants would become part of al-Qaeda later on, and included bin Laden, according to former Foreign Secretary Robin Cook and other sources.^[270]^[271]^[272]^[273]^[274] Despite these and similar allegations, there is no direct evidence of CIA contact with bin Laden or his inner circle during the Soviet–Afghan War.^[275]^[276]^[277]

U.S. support for the mujahideen ended in January 1992 pursuant to an agreement reached with the Soviets in September 1991 on ending external interference in Afghanistan by either side. By 1992, the combined U.S., Saudi, and Chinese aid to the mujahideen was estimated at $6–12 billion, whereas Soviet military aid to Afghanistan was valued at $36–48 billion. The result was a heavily armed, militarized Afghan society: Some sources indicate that Afghanistan was the world’s top destination for personal weapons during the 1980s.^[278]

1980s

1980–1989: Poland

Main article: Solidarity (Polish trade union)

Since the 1952 Constitution, Poland was a one-party Communist state, the Polish People’s Republic. In the 1980s, opposition to it crystallised in the Solidarity trade union, founded in 1980. The Reagan administration supported the Solidarity, and—based on CIA intelligence—waged a public relations campaign to deter what the Carter administration felt was “an imminent move by large Soviet military forces into Poland.”^[279] Michael Reisman and James E. Baker named operations in Poland as one of the covert actions of CIA during Cold War.^[280]^{[clarification needed]} Colonel Ryszard Kukliński, a senior officer on the Polish General Staff was secretly sending reports to the CIA.^[281] The CIA transferred around $2 million yearly in cash to Solidarity, for a total of $10 million over five years. There were no direct links between the CIA and Solidarność, and all money was channeled through third parties.^[282] CIA officers were barred from meeting Solidarity leaders, and the CIA’s contacts with Solidarność activists were weaker than those of the AFL–CIO, which raised $300,000 from its members, which were used to provide material and cash directly to Solidarity, with no control of Solidarity’s use of it. The U.S. Congress authorized the National Endowment for Democracy to promote democracy, and the NED allocated $10 million to Solidarity.^[283]

When the Polish government launched martial law in December 1981, however, Solidarity was not alerted. Potential explanations for this vary; some believe that the CIA was caught off guard, while others suggest that American policy-makers viewed an internal crackdown as preferable to an “inevitable Soviet intervention.”^[284] CIA support for Solidarity included money, equipment and training, which was coordinated by Special Operations.^[285] Henry Hyde, U.S. House intelligence committee member, stated that the US provided “supplies and technical assistance in terms of clandestine newspapers, broadcasting, propaganda, money, organizational help and advice”.^[286] Initial funds for covert actions by CIA were $2 million, but soon after authorization were increased and by 1985 CIA successfully infiltrated Poland.^[287]^{[clarification needed]}

1981–1982: Chad

1981–1990: Nicaragua

The FSLN (Sandinista National Liberation Front) had overthrown in 1979 the Somoza family, friendly with the US. At first the Carter administration tried to be friendly with the new government, but the Reagan administration that came after had a much more anti-communist foreign policy. Immediately in January 1981, Reagan cut off aid to the Nicaraguan government, and August 6, 1981 he signed National Security Decision Directive 7, authorizing the production and shipment of arms to the region but not their deployment. On November 17, 1981 Reagan signed National Security Directive 17, allowing covert support to anti-Sandinista forces.^[291]^[292] The U.S. government then secretly armed, trained and funded the Contras, a group of rebel fighters based in Honduras, in an attempt to overthrow the Nicaraguan government.^[293]^[294]^[295]^[296] As part of the training, the CIA distributed a detailed manual entitled “Psychological Operations in Guerrilla War,” which instructed the Contras, among other things, on how to blow up public buildings, to assassinate judges, to create martyrs, and to blackmail ordinary citizens.^[297] In addition to backing the Contras, the U.S. government also blew up bridges and mined harbors, causing the damaging of at least seven merchant ships and blowing up numerous Nicaraguan fishing boats. They also attacked Corinto harbour, causing 112 wounded according to the Nicaraguan government.^[298]^[299]^[300]^[301]^[302]

After the Boland Amendment made it illegal for the U.S. government to provide funding for Contra activities, Reagan’s administration secretly sold arms to the Iranian government to fund a secret U.S. government apparatus that continued illegally to fund the Contras, in what became known as the Iran–Contra affair.^[303] The U.S. continued to arm and train the Contras even after the Sandinista government of Nicaragua won the elections of 1984.^[304]^[305] In the 1990 Nicaraguan general election, the George H. W. Bush administration authorized 49.75 million dollars of non-lethal aid to the Contras. They continued to assassinate candidates and fight the war and distributed leaflets promoting the opposition party UNO (National Opposition Union),^[306] which won the election.^[307] The Contras ended fighting soon afterwards.^{[citation needed]}

1983: Grenada

Main article: United States invasion of Grenada

On 25 October 1983, the U.S. military and a coalition of six Caribbean nations invaded the nation of Grenada, codenamed Operation Urgent Fury, and successfully overthrew the Marxist government of Hudson Austin which was backed by Cuban soldiers. The conflict was triggered by the killing of the previous leader of Grenada Maurice Bishop and the establishment of Hudson as the country’s leader a week before on 19 October.^[308]^[309] The United Nations General Assembly called the U.S. invasion “a flagrant violation of international law”^[310] but a similar resolution widely supported in the United Nations Security Council was vetoed by the U.S.^[311]^[312]

1989–1994: Panama

Main article: United States invasion of Panama

In 1979, the U.S. and Panama signed a treaty to end the Panama Canal Zone and promise that the U.S. would hand over the canal after 1999. Manuel Noriega ruled the country of Panama as dictator. He was an ally of the United States working with them against the Sandinistas in Nicaragua and the FMLN in El Salvador. Despite this, relations began to deteriorate as he was implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal. including drug trafficking.^[313] As relations continued to deteriorate Noriega started to ally with the Eastern Bloc. This also worried US officials and government officials like Elliott Abrams started arguing to Reagan that the US should invade Panama. Reagan decided to hold off due to George H. W. Bush‘s ties to Noriega when he was the head of the CIA running his election, but after Bush was elected he started pressuring Noriega. Despite irregularities in the 1989 Panamanian general election, Noriega refused to allow the opposition candidate into power. Bush called on him to honor the will of the Panamanian people. Coup attempts were made against Noriega and skirmishes broke out between U.S. and Panamanian troops. Noriega was also indicted for drug charges in the United States.^[314]

In December 1989, in a military operation code-named Operation Just Cause, the U.S. invaded Panama. Noriega went into hiding but was later captured by US forces. President-elect Guillermo Endara was sworn into office. The United States ended Operation Just Cause in January 1990 and began Operation Promote Liberty, which was the occupation of the country to set up the new government until 1994.^[315]

1989: Paraguay

The United States supported dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner from 1954 to 1989,^[316]^[317]^[318]^[319] although it would later support a coup in 1989 by the “traditionalist faction” of the Colorado Party against Stroessner.^{[citation needed]}

1991–present: Post-Cold War

1990s

1991: Iraq

1991: Haiti

Main article: 1991 Haitian coup d’état

Eight months after what was widely considered the first honest election held in Haiti,^[344] the newly elected President Jean-Bertrand Aristide was deposed by the Haitian Armed Forces. It is alleged by some that the CIA “paid key members of the coup regime forces, identified as drug traffickers, for information from the mid-1980s at least until the coup.”^[345] Coup leaders Raoul Cédras and Michel François had received military training in the United States.^[346]

1992–1996: Iraq

The CIA launched DBACHILLES, a coup d’état operation against the Iraqi government, recruiting Ayad Allawi, who headed the Iraqi National Accord, a network of Iraqis who opposed the Saddam Hussein government, as part of the operation. The network included Iraqi military and intelligence officers but was penetrated by people loyal to the Iraqi government.^[347]^[348]^[349] Also using Ayad Allawi and his network, the CIA directed a government sabotage and bombing campaign in Baghdad between 1992 and 1995.^[350] The CIA bombing campaign may have been merely a test of the operational capacity of the CIA’s network of assets on the ground and not intended to be the launch of the coup strike itself.^[350] However, Allawi attempted a coup against Saddam Hussein in 1996. The coup was unsuccessful, but Ayad Allawi was later installed as prime minister of Iraq by the Iraq Interim Governing Council, which had been created by the U.S.-led coalition following the March 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq.^[351]

1994–1995: Haiti

1996–1997: Zaire

2000s

2000: FR Yugoslavia

Main article: 2000 Yugoslavian general election § Involvement of the United States

Following issues^[which?] regarding the results of the 2000 Yugoslavian general election, the U.S. State Department heavily supported opposition groups such as Otpor! through the supply of promotional material and consulting services via Quangos.^[365] United States involvement served to speed up and organize dissent through exposure, resources, moral and material encouragement, technological aid and professional advice.^[366] This campaign was one of the factors contributing to incumbent president’s defeat in the 2000 Yugoslavian general election and subsequent Bulldozer Revolution which overthrew Milošević on October 5, 2000 after he refused to recognise the results of the election.^[366]

2001–2021: Afghanistan

Main articles: United States invasion of Afghanistan and Operation Enduring Freedom

Since 1996, Afghanistan had been under the control of the Taliban-led Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, a largely unrecognized unitary Deobandi–Islamic theocratic emirate administered by shura councils.^[367] On October 7, 2001, four weeks after the 9/11 attacks by al-Qaeda, the United States invaded Afghanistan and began bombing the country. George W. Bush said that the goal was to capture al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden and bring him to justice. Although none of the hijackers were of Afghan nationality, the attacks had been planned in Kandahar.^[368]

On October 11, four days after the bombing started, Bush claimed that it might stop if bin Laden were handed over to the U.S. by the Taliban, which had provided safe haven to al-Qaeda. “If you cough him up and his people today, then we’ll reconsider what we are doing to your country,” Bush told the Taliban. “You still have a second chance. Just bring him in, and bring his leaders and lieutenants and other thugs and criminals with him.”^[369] On October 14, Bush turned down an offer from the Taliban to discuss sending bin Laden to a third country.^[370] The United Kingdom was a key ally of the United States, offering support for military action from the start of preparations for the invasion, and the two countries worked with anti-Taliban Afghan forces in the Northern Alliance.^[371] The US aimed to destroy al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban regime from power,^[372] but also sought to prevent the Northern Alliance from taking control of Afghanistan, believing the Alliance’s rule would alienate the country’s Pashtun majority.^[373] CIA director George Tenet argued that the US should target al-Qaeda but “hold off on the Taliban,” since the Taliban were popular in Pakistan and attacking them could jeopardize relations with Pakistan.^[374]

By the end of October, a further goal had emerged: to remove the Taliban from power in Afghanistan.^{[citation needed]}

From December 6–17, 2001, a team of Northern Alliance fighters, under direction from a U.S. special forces team, pursued bin Laden in the cave complex of Tora Bora in eastern Afghanistan, but the U.S. did not commit its own troops to the operation and bin Laden escaped to neighbouring Pakistan.^[375] That same month, the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan fell ^[371] and was replaced by the Afghan Interim Administration and then the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan in 2002, and finally the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan in 2004. Bin Laden was killed by a team of United States Navy SEALs in a raid on his clandestine residence in Abbottabad, Pakistan, in May 2011, nearly ten years after the initial invasion.^[371] Despite bin Laden’s death, the U.S. remained in Afghanistan, propping up the governments of Hamid Karzai and Ashraf Ghani.^[376]

President Donald Trump struck an arrangement with the Taliban in February 2020 that would see U.S. troops withdraw from Afghanistan.^[377] In April 2021, his successor, Joe Biden announced that a full withdrawal would occur in August of that year.^[378] This was followed by the return of the Taliban to power.^[371]

2003–2021: Iraq

Main article: Iraq War

In 1998 as a non-covert measure, the U.S. enacted the “Iraq Liberation Act,” which states, in part, that “It should be the policy of the United States to support efforts to remove the regime headed by Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq,” and appropriated funds for U.S. aid “to the Iraqi democratic opposition organizations.”^[379] After Bush was elected he started being more aggressive toward Iraq.^[380] After the 9/11 attacks the Bush administration claimed that Iraq’s ruler at the time, Saddam Hussein, had connections to Al-Qaeda and was supporting terrorism. The administration also stated that Hussein was covertly continuing production of weapons of mass destruction despite the fact that evidence for both was not conclusive.^[381]^[382]^[383]^[384]^[385] Iraq was also one of the three countries Bush called out in his Axis of Evil Speech.^[386] In 2002 Congress passed the “Iraq Resolution” which authorized the president to “use any means necessary” against Iraq. The Iraq War then began in March 2003 when United States-led military coalition invaded the country and overthrew the Iraqi government.^[387] The U.S. captured and helped prosecute Hussein, who was later hanged. The U.S. and the new Iraqi government also fought an insurgency following the invasion. In December 2011 the U.S. withdrew its soldiers from the conflict,^[388] but returned in 2014 to help stop the rise of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL).^[389]

The military’s “combat mission” came to an end on December 9, 2021.^[390]

2005: Kyrgyzstan

Main article: Tulip Revolution

In Kyrgyzstan, in response to the corruption and authoritarianism of the Askar Akayev government which had ruled since 1990, mass protests ousted the government and free elections were held.

According to The Wall Street Journal, the US government provided aid to opposition protesters via the State Department, USAID, Radio Liberty and Freedom House by funding the only print-media outlet in the country not controlled by the government. When the state cut off electricity to the outlet, the U.S. embassy provided emergency generators. Other opposition groups and an opposition TV station received funding from the US government and US-based NGOs.^[391]

2006–2007: Palestinian Territories

Occupied Palestinian Territories

Main article: Fatah-Hamas conflict

The Bush Administration was displeased with the government formed by Hamas, which won 56 percent of the seats in the Palestinian legislative election of 2006.^[392] The U.S. government pressured the Fatah faction of the Palestinian National Authority leadership to topple the Hamas government of Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh, and provided funding,^[393]^[394] including a secret training and armaments program that received tens of millions of dollars in congressional funding. This funding was initially blocked by Congress, who feared that arms provided to Palestinians might later be used against Israel, but the Bush administration circumvented Congress.^[395]^[396]^[397]

Fatah launched a war against the Haniyeh government. When the government of Saudi Arabia attempted to negotiate a truce between the sides so as to avoid a wide-scale Palestinian civil war, the U.S. government pressured Fatah to reject the Saudi plan and to continue the effort to topple the Hamas government.^[395] Ultimately, the Hamas government was prevented from ruling over all of the Palestinian territories, with Fatah retreating to the West Bank and Hamas retreating to and taking control of the Gaza strip.^[398]

2005–2009: Syria

In 2005, after a period of co-operation in the War on Terror, the Bush administration froze relations with Syria. According to US cables released by WikiLeaks, the State Department then began to funnel money to opposition groups, including at least $6 million to the anti-government satellite channel Barada TV and the exile group Movement for Justice and Development in Syria, although this was denied by the channel.^[399]^[400]^[401] This covert backing continued under the Obama administration until at least April 2009 when US diplomats expressed concern the funding would undermine US attempts to rebuild relations with Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad.^[399]

2010s

2011: Libya

Main article: 2011 military intervention in Libya

In 2011, Libya had been led by Muammar Gaddafi since 1969. In February 2011, amid the “Arab Spring“, a revolution broke out against him, spreading from the second city Benghazi (where an interim government was set up on 27 February), to the capital Tripoli, sparking the First Libyan Civil War. On 17 March, United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 was adopted, authorizing a no-fly zone over Libya, and “all necessary measures” to protect civilians.^[402] Two days later, France, the United States and the United Kingdom launched the 2011 military intervention in Libya with Operation Odyssey Dawn, US and British naval forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles,^[403] the French and British Air Forces^[404] undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by Coalition forces.^[405] A coalition of 27 states from Europe and the Middle East soon joined the NATO-led intervention, as Operation Unified Protector. The Gaddafi government collapsed in August, leaving the National Transitional Council as the de facto government, with UN recognition. Gaddafi was captured and killed in October by National Transitional Council forces and NATO action ceased.^{[citation needed]}

In April 2016, U.S. President Barack Obama said that the “worst mistake” of his presidency was “failing to plan for the day after, what I think was the right thing to do, in intervening in Libya.”^[406]

Notes

^ Jump up to:^a ^b O’Rourke, Lindsey A. (November 29, 2019). “The Strategic Logic of Covert Regime Change: US-Backed Regime Change Campaigns during the Cold War”. Security Studies. 29: 92–127. doi:10.1080/09636412.2020.1693620. ISSN 0963-6412. S2CID 213588712.
^ “CIA Covert Aid to Italy Averaged $5 Million Annually from Late 1940s to Early 1960s, Study Finds | National Security Archive”. nsarchive.gwu.edu. Retrieved August 8, 2021.
^ Weiner, Tim (October 9, 1994). “C.I.A. Spent Millions to Support Japanese Right in 50’s and 60’s (Published 1994)”. The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved December 24, 2020.
^ “The Long History of the US Interfering with Elections Elsewhere”. The Washington Post. October 13, 2016. Archived from the original on June 16, 2017.
^ Tharoor, Ishaan. “Analysis | The long history of the U.S. interfering with elections elsewhere”. The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved December 25, 2020.
^ Shane, Scott (February 17, 2019). “Russia Isn’t the Only One Meddling in Elections, We Do It, Too”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 19, 2018. Citing Conflict Management and Peace Science, September 19, 2016 “Partisan Electoral Interventions by the Great Powers: Introducing the PEIG Dataset,” http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0738894216661190
^ Eaton had requested 100 Marines but had been limited to eight by Commodore Barron, who wished to budget his forces differently. Daugherty 2009, pp. 11–12.
^ Fye, Shaan. “A History Lesson: The First Barbary War”. The Atlas Business Journal.
^ Herring, George C. From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0. p. 100.
^ Greenberg, Amy (2012), A Wicked War: Polk, Clay, Lincoln, and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico (1989: Knopf) p. 33
^ Zinn, Howard (2003) “Chapter 8: We take nothing by conquest, Thank God”. A People’s History of the United States, (New York: HarperCollins Publishers) p. 169
^ Falcke Martin, Percy (1914). Maximilian in Mexico. The story of the French intervention (1861–1867). New York City, New York, United States: C. Scribner’s sons.
^ Robert H. Buck, Captain, Recorder. Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States Commandery of the state of Colorado, Denver. 10 April 1907. Indiana State Library.
^ Hart, James Mason (2002). Empire and Revolution: The American in Mexico Since the Civil War. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-90077-4.
^ Manning, William R.; Callahan, James Morton; Latané, John H.; Brown, Phillip; Slayden, James L.; Wheless, Joseph; Scott, James Brown (April 25, 1914). “Statements, Interpretations, and Applications of the Monroe Doctrine and of More or Less Allied Doctrines”. American Society of International Law. 8: 34–118. JSTOR 25656497.
^ Stevenson, Robert Louis (1892). A Footnote to History: Eight Years of Trouble in Samoa. BiblioBazaar. ISBN 978-1-4264-0754-3.
^ Gilderhusrt, Mark T. (2000). The Second Century: U.S.–Latin American Relations Since 1889. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 49.
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^ Musicant, Ivan (1990). The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama. New York: MacMillan Publishing. ISBN 978-0-02-588210-2.
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^ Langley, Lester D. (1983). The Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire, 1900–1934. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
^ Musicant, Ivan (1990). The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama. New York: MacMillan Publishing. ISBN 978-0-02-588210-2.
^ David Healy, “Gunboat Diplomacy in the Wilson Era: The U.S. Navy in Haiti, 1915–1916,” (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1976)
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^ “60ème Anniversaire de la Libération – La Libération de Paris – Sénat”. www.senat.fr.
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^ Hart-Landsberg, Martin, Korea: Division, Reunification, & U.S. Foreign Policy, Monthly Review Press (1998), p. 65
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^ Cumings, Bruce, “The Autumn Uprising,” The Origins of the Korean War, Liberation and the Emergence of Separate Regimes, 1945–1947, Princeton University Press(1981)
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^ Sydney Morning Herald, 15 Nov. 2008, “South Korea Owns Up to Brutal Past“
^ Ferris, John; Mawdsley, Evan (2015). The Cambridge History of the Second World War, Volume I: Fighting the War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Nguyễn Anh Thái (chief author); Nguyễn Quốc Hùng; Vũ Ngọc Oanh; Trần Thị Vinh; Đặng Thanh Toán; Đỗ Thanh Bình (2002). Lịch sử thế giới hiện đại (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City: Giáo Dục Publisher. pp. 320–322. 8934980082317. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
^ Harry S. Truman, “Memoirs, Vol. Two: Years of Trial and Hope,” 1946–1953 (Great Britain 1956), p. 66
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^ Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Lorenz, Christopher Michael. “COSTA RICA AND THE 1948 REVOLUTION DECEMBER 7, 2001 ETHICS OF DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT TERM PAPER”. El Espíritu del 48. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
^ “Albania in World War II”. World War II Database.
^ “Albanian Dossier: CIA and British MI6 in Albania”. Albanian Canadian League Information Service. Archived from the original on September 28, 2007.
^ Within Record Group 263. A user’s guide is available to assist researchers in locating the documents.
^ “H-Diplo Roundtable on “America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Shaping of the Modern Middle East” | H-Diplo | H-Net”. networks.h-net.org. Retrieved March 5, 2019.
^ Wilford, Hugh (2013). America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Making of the Modern Middle East. Basic Books. pp. 101, 103. ISBN 9780465019656. Predictably, this version of events has proven highly controversial … In fact, most of the available evidence indicates that it was the Kurd himself [Za’im] who took the initiative in plotting his coup.
^ Rathmell, Andrew (January 1996). “Copeland and Za’im: Re-evaluating the Evidence”. Intelligence and National Security. 11 (1): 89–105. doi:10.1080/02684529608432345. cf. Quandt, William B. (January 28, 2009). “Capsule Review: Secret War in the Middle East: The Covert Struggle for Syria, 1949-1961“. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved March 4, 2019. For example, the author does not believe that the Husni Zaim coup of 1949 was primarily the work of the cia, despite such claims by cia operatives; he does, however, provide considerable detail on the plotting against Syria by Turkey, Iraq, and the United States in 1957.
^ Stuster, J. Dana (August 20, 2013). “Mapped: The 7 Governments the U.S. Has Overthrown”. Foreign Policy. Retrieved March 4, 2019. Despite continued speculation about the CIA’s role in a 1949 coup to install a military government in Syria, the ouster of Iranian Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh is the earliest coup of the Cold War that the U.S. government has acknowledged.
^ Gendzier, Irene L. (2006). Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958. Columbia University Press. pp. 97–99. ISBN 9780231140119. syria coup 1949.
^ Peter Dale Scott (November 1, 2010). “Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma”. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. Retrieved August 27, 2021.
^ Kaufman, Victor S. “Trouble in the Golden Triangle: The United States, Taiwan and the 93rd Nationalist Division”. The China Quarterly. No. 166, Jun., 2001. p.441. Retrieved January 22, 2021.
^ Kaufman, Victor S. “Trouble in the Golden Triangle: The United States, Taiwan and the 93rd Nationalist Division”. The China Quarterly. No. 166, Jun., 2001. p.442. Retrieved January 22, 2021.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Peter Dale Scott, Asia-Pacific Journal Japan Focus, 1 Nov. 2010, Volume 8 | Issue 44 | Number 2, “Operation Paper: The United States and Drugs in Thailand and Burma” 米国とタイ・ビルマの麻薬, taken from Chapter 3 of “American War Machine: Deep Politics, the CIA Global Drug Connection, and the Road to Afghanistan (War and Peace Library)” (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010)
^ William R. Corson, The Armies of Ignorance: The Rise of the American Intelligence Empire (New York: Dial Press/James Wade, 1977), 320–22
^ Wilford, Hugh (2013). America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Making of the Modern Middle East. Basic Books. pp. 135–139. ISBN 9780465019656.
^ Holland, Matthew F. (1996). America and Egypt: From Roosevelt to Eisenhower. Praeger. pp. 26–29. ISBN 978-0-275-95474-1.
^ David S. Painter (1993), The United States, Great Britain, and Mossadegh (PDF), Wikidata Q98960655.
^ “Mossaddegh: Eccentric nationalist begets strange history”. NewsMine. April 16, 2000. Retrieved June 13, 2014.
^ Abrahamian, Ervand (July 24, 2017). “Newly Declassified Documents Confirm U.S. Backed 1953 Coup in Iran Over Oil Contracts” (Interview). Interviewed by Amy Goodman and Juan González. Democracy Now!. Retrieved July 24, 2017.
^ The date of the coup in the Persian calendar.
^ Clandestine Service History: Overthrow of Premier Mossadeq of Iran, Mar. 1954: p. iii.
^ Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez, and Decolonization. I.B.Tauris. 2007. pp. 775 of 1082. ISBN 978-1-84511-347-6.
^ Risen, James (2000). “Secrets of History: The United States in Iran”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 25, 2013.
^ Siegel, Danielle; Byrne, Malcolm (February 12, 2018). “CIA declassifies more of “Zendebad, Shah!” – internal study of 1953 Iran coup”. National Security Archive.
^ Sylvan, David; Majeski, Stephen (2009). U.S. Foreign Policy in Perspective: Clients, Enemies and Empire. London. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-415-70134-1. OCLC 259970287.
^ Byrne, Malcolm (August 19, 2013). “CIA Admits It Was Behind Iran’s Coup”. Foreign Policy. Retrieved August 19, 2021.
^ Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. p. 92. ISBN 978-0-415-68617-4.
^ Coatsworth, John. H. “Central America and the United States: The Clients and the Colossus,” Twayne Publishers, New York: 1994, pp. 58, 226
^ Kornbluh, Peter; Doyle, Kate (eds.). “overview”. CIA and Assassinations: The Guatemala 1954 Documents. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book. Washington, D.C.: National Security Archive. Archived from the original on November 24, 2016.
^ “(DELETED) MEMO TO JAMES LAY FROM (DELETED) RE GUATEMALA 1954 COUP | CIA FOIA (foia.cia.gov)”. www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on September 18, 2016. Retrieved April 29, 2019.
^ Kornbluh, Peter; Doyle, Kate (eds.). “Document 5”. CIA and Assassinations: The Guatemala 1954 Documents. National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book. Washington, D.C.: National Security Archive. Archived from the original on November 24, 2016.
^ Saunders, Bonnie, “The United States and Arab Nationalism: The Syrian Case, 1953–1960,” (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996), p. 49
^ Sylvan, David and Majeski, Stephen, “U.S. Foreign Policy in Perspective: Clients, Enemies and Empire,” (New York: Routledge, 2009) http://us-foreign-policy-perspective.org/index.php?id=328&L=0 Archived April 1, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Blum, William (2003). Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II. Zed Books. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-1-84277-369-7.
^ Saunders, Bonnie, “The United States and Arab Nationalism: The Syrian Case, 1953–1960,” (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1996), p. 51
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Fenton, Ben (September 26, 2003). “Documents show White House and No 10 conspired over oil-fuelled invasion plan”. The Guardian. Archived from the original on June 3, 2015.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b John Prados, Safe for Democracy: The Secret Wars of the CIA (Chicago: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006), p. 164 [1]
^ Jones, Matthew. “The ‘Preferred Plan’: The Anglo-American Working Group Report on Covert Action in Syria, 1957,” Intelligence and National Security 19(3), Autumn 2004, pp. 404–406
^ Dorril, Stephen, “MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty’s Secret Intelligence Service,” (New York: Touchstone, 2000), p. 656 656
^ Blum, William, “Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II,” (Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1995), pp. 88–91
^ Conboy, Kenneth; Morrison, James (1999) “Feet to the Fire CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958,” (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1999), p. 155, ISBN 1557501939
^ Conboy, Kenneth; Morrison, James (1999) “Feet to the Fire CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957–1958,” (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1999), p. 131, ISBN 1557501939
^ Los Angeles Times, October 29, 1994, “CIA’s Covert Indonesia Operation in the 1950s Acknowledged by U.S.,” http://articles.latimes.com/1994-10-29/news/mn-56121_1_state-department Archived January 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
^ Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, “The Untold History of the United States” (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2012), pp. 347–348
^ “The History Place — Vietnam War 1945–1960”. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
^ Prados, John, (2006) “The Road South: The Ho Chi Minh Trail”, Rolling Thunder in a Gentle Land, editor By Andrew A. Wiest, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84603-020-X.
^ Human Rights Watch (April 2002), “III. A History of Resistance to Central Government Control”, Repression of Montagnards: Conflicts over Land and Religion in Vietnam’s Central Highlands
^ Shultz, Richard H. Jr. (2000), the Secret War against Hanoi: the untold story of spies, saboteurs, and covert warriors in North Vietnam, Harper Collins Perennial, p. 3
^ Kinzer, Stephen (2007). Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq. New York: Henry Holt and Company. pp. 158–166. ISBN 978-1-4299-0537-4.
^ “U.S. and Diem’s Overthrow: Step by Step”. The New York Times. July 1, 1971. Retrieved July 21, 2018.
^ NPR Staff (April 17, 2011). “50 Years Later: Learning From The Bay Of Pigs”. NPR. Retrieved November 18, 2021.
^ Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–63, Volume X, Cuba, January 1961 – September 1962, “291. Program Review by the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale),” January 18, 1962, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d291 Archived October 12, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Office of the Historian, United States Department of State, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–63, Volume X, Cuba, January 1961 – September 1962, “291. Program Review by the Chief of Operations, Operation Mongoose (Lansdale),” January 18, 1962, pp. 711–17, https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1961-63v10/d291 Archived October 12, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
^ Domínguez, Jorge I. “The @#$%& Missile Crisis (Or, What Was ‘Cuban’ About US Decisions During the Cuban Missile Crisis),” Diplomatic History: The Journal of the Society for Historians of Foreign Relations, Vol. 24, No. 2, Spring 2000: 305–15
^ Johnson, M. Alex (June 26, 2007). “CIA acknowledges Castro plot went to the top”. NBC News.
^ Escalante Font, Fabián, “Executive Action: 634 Ways to Kill Fidel Castro,” Melbourne: Ocean Press, 2006
^ Campbell, Duncan (August 2, 2006). “638 ways to kill Castro”. The Guardian.
^ AFP (April 17, 2021). “CIA planned to assassinate Raul Castro in 1960: Declassified documents”. CNA.
^ Baloyra, Enrique; Morris, James A. (1993). Conflict and Change in Cuba (1st ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. p. 17. ISBN 0-585-18248-5. OCLC 44964290.
^ Fabry, Merrill (October 19, 2015). “The U.S. Trade Embargo on Cuba Just Hit 55 Years”. TIME. Retrieved November 18, 2021.
^ Glass, Andrew (February 7, 2016). “U.S. bans Cuban imports and exports, Feb. 7, 1962”. Politico. Retrieved November 18, 2021.
^ Benjamin, Medea (November 16, 2021). “Cubans Don’t Want Regime Change”. Jacobin. Retrieved November 18, 2021. the Donald Trump administration added over 200 new measures that dealt serious blows, such as stopping the flow of remittances from Cuban Americans to their families back home and prohibiting US cruise ships from making stops on the island (affecting a business that had flourished under president Barack Obama’s openings).
^ Phillips, Tom (January 11, 2021). “Trump administration puts Cuba back on ‘sponsor of terrorism’ blacklist”. The Guardian. Retrieved November 16, 2021.
^ Wall, Katie (May 29, 2015). “U.S. Officially Removes Cuba From State Sponsors of Terrorism List”. NBC News. Retrieved November 18, 2021.
^ “UN General Assembly calls for US to end Cuba embargo for 29th consecutive year”. United Nations General Assembly. June 23, 2021.
^ Kettle, Martin (August 10, 2000). “President ‘ordered murder’ of Congo leader”. The Guardian. London, England.
^ Monte Reel, “A Brotherhood of Spies: The U2 and the CIA’s Secret War,” (New York: Anchor Books, 2019), pp. 209–210
^ Sherer, Lindsey (January 16, 2015). “U.S. foreign policy and its Deadly Effect on Patrice Lumumba”. Washington State University. Archived from the original on May 5, 2017. Retrieved December 7, 2019.
^ Nzongola-Ntalaja, Georges (January 17, 2011). “Patrice Lumumba: the most important assassination of the 20th century”. The Guardian. Retrieved September 6, 2021.
^ Hoskyns 1965, pp. 375–377.
^ LaFontaine 1986, p. 16
^ Villafana (2017), pp. 72–73.
^ Martell (2018), pp. 74–75.
^ Traugott (1979)
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Nugent 2004, p. 233.
^ US Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress Country Studies, “Laos: The Attempt to Restore Neutrality,” https://web.archive.org/web/20041031091831/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%2Bla0039%29
^ Castle, Timothy, “At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975,” (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 32–33
^ Castle, Timothy, “At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975,” (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 33–35, 40, 59
^ US Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress Country Studies, “Laos: The Attempt to Restore Neutrality,” https://web.archive.org/web/20041031091831/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID%2Bla0039%29
^ Castle, Timothy, “At War in the Shadow of Vietnam: United States Military Aid to the Royal Lao Government, 1955–1975,” (New York: Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 21–25, 27
^ Kross, Peter (December 9, 2018). “The Assassination of Rafael Trujillo”. Sovereign Media. Retrieved January 17, 2019.
^ “The Kaplans of the CIA – Approved For Release 2001/03/06 CIA-RDP84-00499R001000100003-2” (PDF). Central Intelligence Agency. November 24, 1972. pp. 3–6. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 23, 2017. Retrieved January 17, 2019.
^ CIA “Family Jewels” Memo, 1973 (see page 434) Family Jewels (Central Intelligence Agency)
^ Ameringer, Charles D. (January 1, 1990). U.S. Foreign Intelligence: The Secret Side of American history (1990 ed.). Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0669217803.
^ Iber, Patrick (April 24, 2013). “”Who Will Impose Democracy?”: Sacha Volman and the Contradictions of CIA Support for the Anticommunist Left in Latin America”. Diplomatic History. 37 (5): 995–1028. doi:10.1093/dh/dht041.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Stone and Kuznick (2012, pp. 343–344) citingCrandall, Britta H. (2011), Hemispheric Giants: The Misunderstood History of U.S.–Brazilian Relations, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-1-4422-0787-5 and Schmitz, David F. (1999), Thank God they’re on our side: the United States and right-wing dictatorships, 1921–1965, U. of North Carolina Press, p. 98, ISBN 978-0-8078-2472-6 and Schmitz, David F. (1999), Thank God They’re on Our Side: The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1921–1965, U. North Carolina Press, pp. 272–273
^ National Security Archive, April 2, 2014, “Brazil Marks 50th Anniversary of Military Coup, On 50th anniversary, Archive Posts New Kennedy Tape Transcripts on Coup Plotting against Brazilian President Joao Goulart,” https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB465/
^ Stone and Kuznick (2012, pp. 343–344) citing Hellman, Robert G.; Rosenbaum, H. Jon (1975), Latin America: The Search for a New International Role, Wiley, p. 80
^ Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 57, 220. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7.
^ Hahn, Peter (2011). Missions Accomplished?: The United States and Iraq Since World War I. Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-533338-1.
^ Komer, Robert (February 8, 1963). “Secret Memorandum for the President”. Retrieved May 1, 2017.
^ Wolfe-Hunnicutt, Brandon (2017). “Oil Sovereignty, American Foreign Policy, and the 1968 Coups in Iraq”. Diplomacy & Statecraft. Routledge. 28 (2): 248, footnote 4. doi:10.1080/09592296.2017.1309882. S2CID 157328042.
^ Ismael, Tareq Y.; Ismael, Jacqueline S.; Perry, Glenn E. (2016). Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East: Continuity and Change (2nd ed.). Routledge. p. 240. ISBN 978-1-317-66282-2.
^ Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 52–54, 57–58, 200. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7.
^ Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 59–61, 68–72, 80. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7.
^ Citino, Nathan J. (2017). “The People’s Court”. Envisioning the Arab Future: Modernization in US-Arab Relations, 1945–1967. Cambridge University Press. p. 222. ISBN 978-1-108-10755-6.
^ Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 77–79. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7.
^ Farouk–Sluglett, Marion; Sluglett, Peter (2001). Iraq Since 1958: From Revolution to Dictatorship. I.B. Tauris. p. 86. ISBN 9780857713735. Although individual leftists had been murdered intermittently over the previous years, the scale on which the killings and arrests took place in the spring and summer of 1963 indicates a closely coordinated campaign, and it is almost certain that those who carried out the raid on suspects’ homes were working from lists supplied to them. Precisely how these lists had been compiled is a matter of conjecture, but it is certain that some of the Ba’th leaders were in touch with American intelligence networks, and it is also undeniable that a variety of different groups in Iraq and elsewhere in the Middle East had a strong vested interest in breaking what was probably the strongest and most popular communist party in the region.
^ Batatu, Hanna (1978). The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq. Princeton University Press. pp. 985–987. ISBN 978-0-86356-520-5.
^ Gibson, Bryan R. (2015). Sold Out? US Foreign Policy, Iraq, the Kurds, and the Cold War. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-137-48711-7.
^ Citino, Nathan J. (2017). “The People’s Court”. Envisioning the Arab Future: Modernization in US–Arab Relations, 1945–1967. Cambridge University Press. pp. 220–222. ISBN 978-1-108-10755-6.
^ Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, “The Untold History of the United States” (New York, Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2012), p. 350 citing David F. Schmitz, “The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989” (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 45
^ Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4008-8886-3.
^ Melvin, Jess (2018). The Army and the Indonesian Genocide: Mechanics of Mass Murder. Routledge. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-138-57469-4.
^ Time Magazine, September 30, 2015, The Memory of Savage Anticommunist Killings Still Haunts Indonesia, 50 Years On Archived March 1, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Time
^ Mark Aarons (2007). “Justice Betrayed: Post-1945 Responses to Genocide”. In David A. Blumenthal & Timothy L. H. McCormack (eds.). The Legacy of Nuremberg: Civilising Influence or Institutionalised Vengeance? (International Humanitarian Law). Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 81. ISBN 978-9004156913. Archived from the original on January 5, 2016. Retrieved August 5, 2018.
^ “Files reveal US had detailed knowledge of Indonesia’s anti-communist purge”. Associated Press. October 17, 2017. Retrieved August 5, 2018 – via The Guardian.
^ Melvin, Jess (October 20, 2017). “Telegrams confirm scale of US complicity in 1965 genocide”. Indonesia at Melbourne. University of Melbourne. Retrieved July 27, 2018. The new telegrams confirm the US actively encouraged and facilitated genocide in Indonesia to pursue its own political interests in the region, while propagating an explanation of the killings it knew to be untrue.
^ Scott, Margaret (October 26, 2017). “Uncovering Indonesia’s Act of Killing”. The New York Review of Books. Retrieved August 5, 2018. According to Simpson, these previously unseen cables, telegrams, letters, and reports “contain damning details that the U.S. was willfully and gleefully pushing for the mass murder of innocent people.”
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Bevins, Vincent (October 20, 2017). “What the United States Did in Indonesia”. The Atlantic. Retrieved October 21, 2017.
^ Kadane, Kathy (May 21, 1990). “U.S. Officials’ Lists Aided Indonesian Bloodbath in ’60s”. The Washington Post. Retrieved August 5, 2018.
^ Robinson, Geoffrey B. (2018). The Killing Season: A History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965–66. Princeton University Press. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-4008-8886-3. a US Embassy official in Jakarta, Robert Martens, had supplied the Indonesian Army with lists containing the names of thousands of PKI officials in the months after the alleged coup attempt. According to the journalist Kathy Kadane, “As many as 5,000 names were furnished over a period of months to the Army there, and the Americans later checked off the names of those who had been killed or captured.” Despite Martens later denials of any such intent, these actions almost certainly aided in the death or detention of many innocent people. They also sent a powerful message that the US government agreed with and supported the army’s campaign against the PKI, even as that campaign took its terrible toll in human lives.
^ Simpson, Bradley (2010). Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S.–Indonesian Relations, 1960–1968. Stanford University Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-0-8047-7182-5. Washington did everything in its power to encourage and facilitate the army-led massacre of alleged PKI members, and U.S. officials worried only that the killing of the party’s unarmed supporters might not go far enough, permitting Sukarno to return to power and frustrate the [Johnson] Administration’s emerging plans for a post-Sukarno Indonesia. This was efficacious terror, an essential building block of the neoliberal policies that the West would attempt to impose on Indonesia after Sukarno’s ouster.
^ Stone, Oliver and Kuznick, Peter, “The Untold History of the United States” (New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2012), p. 352
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Bevins, Vincent (2020). The Jakarta Method: Washington’s Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World. PublicAffairs. pp. 238–243. ISBN 978-1541742406.
^ Chandler, p. 128.
^ Shawcross, pp. 68–71 & 93–94.
^ Clymer, Kenton (2013). The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000: A Troubled Relationship. Routledge. pp. 14–16. ISBN 9781134341566.
^ Clymer, Kenton (2004). The United States and Cambodia, 1969–2000: A Troubled Relationship. Routledge. pp. 21–23. ISBN 978-0415326025. Sihanouk’s dismissal (which followed constitutional forms, rather than a blatant military coup d’état) immediately produced much speculation as to its causes. … most others see at least some American involvement.
^ Kiernan, Ben (2004). How Pol Pot Came to Power: Colonialism, Nationalism, and Communism in Cambodia, 1930–1975. Yale University Press. pp. 300-301. ISBN 9780300102628. Prince Sihanouk has long claimed that the American CIA ‘masterminded’ the coup against him. … There is in fact no evidence of CIA involvement in the 1970 events, but a good deal of evidence points to a role played by sections of the US military intelligence establishment and the Army Special Forces. … While [Samuel R.] Thornton’s allegation that ‘the highest level’ of the US government was party to the coup plans remains uncorroborated, it is clear that Lon Nol carried out the coup with at least a legitimate expectation of significant US support.
^ Deac, p. 79.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Gustafson, Kristian (2007). Hostile Intent: U.S. Covert Operations in Chile, 1964–1974. Potomac Books, Inc. ISBN 9781612343594.
^ Johnson, Loch (2007). Strategic Intelligence. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313065286. Retrieved January 12, 2017.
^ Briscoe, David (September 20, 2000). “CIA Admits Involvement in Chile”. ABC News.
^ Dinges, John (2005). The Condor Years: How Pinochet And His Allies Brought Terrorism To Three Continents. The New Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-1-56584-977-8.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Kornbluh, Peter (September 11, 1998). “Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents Relating to the Military Coup, September 11, 1973”. National Security Archive. Retrieved August 21, 2021.
^ North American Congress on Latin America (NACLA) September 25, 2007, “Alliance for Power: U.S. Aid to Bolivia Under Banzer,” https://nacla.org/article/alliance-power-us-aid-bolivia-under-banzer Archived March 17, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
^ HuffPost, October 23, 2008 updated on May 25, 2011, “U.S. Intervention in Bolivia,” https://www.huffingtonpost.com/stephen-zunes/us-intervention-in-bolivi_b_127528.html Archived January 21, 2017, at the Wayback Machine reposted from Foreign Policy in Focus
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “50 Years Since Banzer Dictatorship and Operation Condor”. Kawsachun News. August 22, 2021. Retrieved August 22, 2021.
^ National Security Archive March 8, 2013, “Operation Condor on Trial: Legal Proceeding on Latin American Rendition and Assassination Program Open in Buenos Aires,” https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB416/ Archived March 17, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
^ Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. p. 22 & 23. ISBN 978-0-415-68617-4.
^ McSherry, J. Patrice (2011). “Chapter 5: “Industrial repression” and Operation Condor in Latin America”. In Esparza, Marcia; Huttenbach, Henry R.; Feierstein, Daniel (eds.). State Violence and Genocide in Latin America: The Cold War Years (Critical Terrorism Studies). Routledge. p. 107. ISBN 978-0-415-66457-8.
^ “Eugene Register-Guard – Google News Archive Search”. news.google.com.
^ “BBC NEWS | Africa | Mengistu found guilty of genocide”. news.bbc.co.uk. December 12, 2006. Retrieved January 8, 2017.
^ Keneally, Thomas (September 27, 1987). “In Eritrea”. New York Times.
^ “Wir haben euch Waffen und Brot geschickt”. Der Spiegel. March 3, 1980.
^ Tewolde, Bereket (January 22, 2008). “Attempts to distort history”. Shaebia. Archived from the original on November 17, 2008.
^ “Ethiopia a Forgotten War Rages On”. Time. December 23, 1985. Archived from the original on April 16, 2009.
^ Vaughan, Sarah (2003). “Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia” (PDF). Archived 13 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine University of Edinburgh: Ph.D. Thesis. p. 168.
^ Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-8014-3965-5.
^ “US admits helping Mengistu escape”. BBC News. December 22, 1999.
^ Valentino, Benjamin A. (2004). Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 196. ISBN 0-8014-3965-5.
^ Simpson, Chris (February 25, 2002). “Obituary: Jonas Savimbi, Unita’s local boy”. BBC. Retrieved January 27, 2020.
^ Savimbi, Jonas (January 1986). “The War against Soviet Colonialism”. Policy Review. pp. 18–25. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
^ Brown, Seyom. The Faces of Power: Constancy and Change in United States Foreign Policy from Truman to Clinton, 1994. Page 303.
^ Jussi HanhimÄki and Jussi M. Hanhim̀eaki. The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy, 2004. Page 408.
^ Andrew, Christopher M. For the President’s Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush, 1995. Page 412.
^ Richard H. Immerman and Athan G. Theoharis. The Central Intelligence Agency: Security Under Scrutiny, 2006. Page 325.
^ Koh, Harold Hongju (1990). The National Security Constitution: Sharing Power After the Iran-Contra Affair. Yale University Press. ISBN.p. 52
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^ A Long-Awaited Apology for Shiites, but the Wounds Run Deep Archived April 26, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The New York Times, November 8, 2011
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^ United Nations, UN Security Council Resolution 687, April 8, 1991, http://www.un.org/Depts/unmovic/documents/687.pdf Archived October 20, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
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^ Makiya, Kanan (1998). Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq, Updated Edition. University of California Press. p. xv. ISBN 978-0-520-92124-5.
^ cf. “A Gulf War Exclusive: President Bush Talking with David Frost”. YouTube. Retrieved February 26, 2017. George H. W. Bush: Everybody felt that Saddam Hussein could not stay in office—certainly not stay in office as long as he’s stayed in office. I miscalculated—I thought he’d be gone. But I wasn’t alone! People in the Arab world felt, with unanimity, that he would be out of there. I think all observers felt that (event occurs at 45:14).
^ Tyler, Patrick E. (May 21, 1991). “AFTER THE WAR; Bush Links End of Trading Ban To Hussein Exit”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on August 7, 2017. My view is we don’t want to lift these sanctions as long as Saddam Hussein is in power,” said President George H. W. Bush
^ United Press International, May 20, 1991, “U.S. Taking Tough Stand Against Saddam Hussein,” http://www.upi.com/Archives/1991/05/20/US-taking-tough-stand-against-Saddam-Hussein/1946674712000/ Archived October 19, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^ Additional U.S. government officials’ statements setting Saddam Hussein’s ouster as the precondition for the cessation of sanctions against Iraq, including statements by Robert Gates, Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, are provided in Gordon, Joy, 2010 “Invisible War: The United States and the Iraq Sanctions,” Harvard University Press, http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=978-0674035713 Archived April 27, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
^ “Autopsy of a Disaster: The U.S. Sanctions Policy on Iraq”. Institute for Public Accuracy. November 13, 1998. Retrieved February 26, 2017. For example, United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright stated in March 1997 that “Our view, which is unshakable, is that Iraq must prove its peaceful intentions. It can only do that by complying with all of the Security Council resolutions to which it is subjected”; National Security Adviser Sandy Berger stated in November 1997 that “It’s been the U.S. position since the Bush administration that Saddam Hussein comply—has to comply with all of the relevant Security Council resolutions”; and UN ambassador Bill Richardson stated in December 1997 that “Our policy is clear. We believe that Saddam Hussein should comply with all the Security Council resolutions, and that includes 1137, those that deal with the UNSCOM inspectors, those that deal with human rights issues, those that deal with prisoners of war with Kuwait, those that deal with the treatment of his own people. We think that there are standards of international behavior.”
^ Iraq surveys show ‘humanitarian emergency’ Archived August 6, 2009, at the Wayback Machine UNICEF Newsline August 12, 1999
^ Rubin, Michael (December 2001). “Sanctions on Iraq: A Valid Anti-American Grievance?”. Middle East Review of International Affairs. 5 (4): 100–15. Archived from the original on October 28, 2012.
^ Spagat, Michael (September 2010). “Truth and death in Iraq under sanctions” (PDF). Significance.
^ Dyson, Tim; Cetorelli, Valeria (July 1, 2017). “Changing views on child mortality and economic sanctions in Iraq: a history of lies, damned lies and statistics”. BMJ Global Health. 2 (2): e000311. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2017-000311. ISSN 2059-7908. PMC 5717930. PMID 29225933.
^ “Saddam Hussein said sanctions killed 500,000 children. That was ‘a spectacular lie.'”. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on August 4, 2017. Retrieved August 4, 2017.
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^ Jump up to:^a ^b Brinkley, Joel (June 9, 2004). “Ex-C.I.A. Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90’s Attacks”. The New York Times. The Iraqi government at the time claimed that the bombs, including one it said exploded in a movie theater, resulted in many civilian casualties … One former Central Intelligence Agency officer who was based in the region, Robert Baer, recalled that a bombing during that period ‘blew up a school bus; school children were killed.’ Mr. Baer … said he did not recall which resistance group might have set off that bomb. Other former intelligence officials said Dr. Allawi’s organization was the only resistance group involved in bombings and sabotage at that time. But one former senior intelligence official recalled that ‘bombs were going off to no great effect.’ ‘I don’t recall very much killing of anyone,’ the official said.
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^ Reyntjens, Filip. The Great African War: Congo and Regional Geopolitics, 1996–2006. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. p. 49
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^ Kennes, Erik. “The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Structures of Greed, Networks of Need.” Rethinking the Economics of War. Ed. Cynthia J. Arnson and I. William Zartman. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2005. p. 147
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^ Nicholas Thompson (2001). “This Ain’t Your Momma’s CIA”. Washington Monthly. Archived from the original on January 9, 2007.
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^ Coll, Steve (2004). Ghost Wars: The Secret History of the CIA, Afghanistan, and Bin Laden, from the Soviet Invasion to September 10, 2001. Penguin Group. pp. 473–478, 490. ISBN 9781594200076.
^ Tyler, Patrick E.; Bumiller, Elisabeth (October 12, 2001). “President Hints He Will Halt War if bin Laden Is Handed Over”. The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved August 22, 2021.
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^ Wright et al. 2010, p. 41.
^ Woodward 2002, p. 122. “The U.S. action would not succeed if the Northern Alliance took over or even seemed to take over the country. The Pashtun majority would not accept that.”
^ Woodward 2002, p. 123. “‘We want to hold off on the Taliban,’ Tenet continued, ‘So as not to destabilize Pakistan and our relationship with Pakistan.’ There was still sufficient support for the Taliban in Pakistan that a military campaign conspicuously against the Taliban could undermine Musharraf.”
^ Corera, Gordon (July 21, 2011). “Bin Laden’s Tora Bora escape, just months after 9/11”. BBC News. Retrieved September 29, 2021.
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^ The Times (UK), November 18, 2006, “Diplomats Fear US Wants to Arm Fatah for ‘War on Hamas'”
^ Christian Science Monitor, May 25, 2007, “Israel, US, and Egypt Back Fatah’s Fight Against Hamas,” http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0525/p07s02-wome.html Archived October 26, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
^ The Times (UK), November 18, 2006, “Diplomats Fear US wants to Arm Fatah for ‘War on Hamas'”
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Vanity Fair, March 3, 2008, “The Gaza Bombshell,” http://www.vanityfair.com/news/2008/04/gaza200804 Archived January 28, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^ The Middle East Online, January 31, 2007, http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=19358 Archived October 30, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^ San Francisco Chronicle, December 14, 2006, “U.S. Training Fatah in Anti-Terror Tactic – Underlying Motive Is to Counter Strength of Hamas, Analysts Say,” http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/U-S-training-Fatah-in-anti-terror-tactics-2465370.php Archived December 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
^ Rose, David (March 3, 2008). “The Gaza Bombshell”. Vanity Fair. Retrieved December 19, 2020. But the secret plan backfired, resulting in a further setback for American foreign policy under Bush. Instead of driving its enemies out of power, the U.S.-backed Fatah fighters inadvertently provoked Hamas to seize total control of Gaza.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Whitlock, Craig (April 17, 2011). “U.S. secretly backed Syrian opposition groups, cables released by WikiLeaks show”. The Washington Post.
^ Bandeira, Luiz Alberto Moniz (May 30, 2017). The Second Cold War: Geopolitics and the Strategic Dimensions of the USA. Springer. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-3-319-54888-3.
^ Morrison, Sarah (April 19, 2011). “UK-based Syrian TV station denies secret funding from US government”. London: TheINDEPENDENT.
^ “Security Council Approves ‘No-Fly Zone’ over Libya, Authorizing ‘All Necessary Measures’ To Protect Civilians in Libya, by a Vote of Ten For, None Against, with Five Abstentions”. United Nations. March 17, 2011. Archived from the original on March 19, 2011. Retrieved March 19, 2011.
^ “Libya Live Blog”. Al Jazeera. March 19, 2011. Archived from the original on March 20, 2011. Retrieved March 19, 2011.
^ “Libya: US, UK and France attack Gaddafi forces”. BBC News. March 20, 2011. Archived from the original on March 20, 2011. Retrieved March 20, 2011.
^ “French Fighter Jets Deployed over Libya”. CNN. March 19, 2011. Archived from the original on March 22, 2011. Retrieved March 19, 2011.
^ Tierney, Dominic (April 15, 2016). “The Legacy of Obama’s ‘Worst Mistake'”. The Atlantic. Retrieved May 14, 2022.
^ “Assad must go, U.S. Republicans say”. Newspapers.com. Agence France Presse. April 29, 2011. Retrieved December 28, 2019. We urge President Obama to state unequivocally, as he did in the case of (Libyan leader Moammar) Gadhafi and Egyptian president Hosni) Mubarak — that it is time for Assad to go.
^ Council on Foreign Relations, August 18, 2011, “Calling for Regime Change in Syria,” http://www.cfr.org/syria/calling-regime-change-syria/p25677 Archived November 13, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^ The Wall Street Journal, August 19, 2011, “World Leaders Urge Assad to Resign: Obama Imposes New Embargo on Syrian Oil Sales as Europe Considers Similar Measures; Crackdown on Protests Persists,” https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424053111903639404576516144145940136 Archived November 19, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
^ The Guardian, January 25, 2015, “US Changes Its Tune on Syrian Regime Change as Isis Threat Takes Top Priority, Washington Still Hopes Bashar al-Assad Will Be Removed from Power, But Is No Longer Insisting on It As A Precondition for Peace, https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jan/25/us-syrian-regime-change-isis-priority Archived 2016-11-13 at the Wayback Mach

Bibliography

Bass, Gary J. (2008). Freedom’s Battle: The Origins of Humanitarian Intervention. Knopf Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-307-26929-4.
Bert, Wayne (2016). American Military Intervention in Unconventional War: From the Philippines to Iraq. Springer. ISBN 978-0-230-33781-7.
Bevins, Vincent (2020). The Jakarta Method: Washington’s Anticommunist Crusade and the Mass Murder Program that Shaped Our World. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1541742406.
Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-68617-4.
Blum, William (2003). Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84277-369-7.
Bruzzese, Anthony (2008). The Origins of Intervention: America, Italy, and the Fight Against Communism, 1947–1953. ISBN 978-0-494-46952-1.
Cooley, Alexander (2012). Great Games, Local Rules: The New Power Contest in Central Asia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-981200-4.
Cullinane, Michael (2012). Liberty and American Anti-Imperialism: 1898–1909. Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-00257-0.
Foner, Philip (1972). The Spanish–Cuban–American War and the Birth of American Imperialism Vol. 1: 1895–1898. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-85345-266-9.
Foner, Philip (1972). The Spanish–Cuban–American War and the Birth of American Imperialism Vol. 2: 1898–1902. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-85345-267-6.
Fouskas, Vassilis; Gökay, Bülent (2005). The New American Imperialism: Bush’s War on Terror and Blood for Oil. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-98476-2.
Grow, Michael (2008). U.S. Presidents and Latin American Interventions: Pursuing Regime Change in the Cold War. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1586-5.
Harland, Michael (2013). Democratic Vanguardism: Modernity, Intervention, and the Making of the Bush Doctrine. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-7970-3.
Hiro, Dilip (2014). War Without End: The Rise of Islamist Terrorism and Global Response. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-48556-5.
Kinzer, Stephen (2006). Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq. Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-8240-1.
Little, Douglas (2009). American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-7761-6.
Little, Douglas (2016). Us versus Them: The United States, Radical Islam, and the Rise of the Green Threat. UNC Press Books. ISBN 978-1-4696-2681-9.
Maurer, Noel (2013). The Empire Trap: The Rise and Fall of U.S. Intervention to Protect American Property Overseas, 1893–2013. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1-4008-4660-3.
McPherson, Alan (2016). A Short History of U.S. Interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-95400-3.
McPherson, Alan (2013). Encyclopedia of U.S. Military Interventions in Latin America. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-260-9.
North, David (2016). A Quarter Century of War. Mehring Books. ISBN 978-1-893638-69-3.
Parmar, Inderjeet; Cox, Michael (2010). Soft Power and US Foreign Policy: Theoretical, Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-15048-8.
Sandstrom, Karl (July 18, 2013). Local Interests and American Foreign Policy: Why International Interventions Fail. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-04165-6.
Schoonover, Thomas (2013). Uncle Sam’s War of 1898 and the Origins of Globalization. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-4336-1.
Sullivan, Michael (2008). American adventurism abroad: invasions, interventions, and regime changes since World War II. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4051-7075-8.
Wilford, Hugh (2008). The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04517-0.
Wilford, Hugh (2013). America’s Great Game: The CIA’s Secret Arabists and the Shaping of the Modern Middle East. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01965-6.

Bibliography

Barbara Salazar Torreon; Sofia Plagakis (July 20, 2020), Instances of Use of United States Armed Forces Abroad, 1798-2020, Congressional Research Service, Wikidata Q108417901.

1945–1949: China

1947–1949: Greece

1948: Costa Rica

1949–1953: Albania

1949: Syria

1950s

1950–1953: Burma and China

1952: Egypt

1952: Guatemala

1952–1953: Iran

1954: Guatemala

1956–1957: Syria

1957–1959: Indonesia

1959–1963: South Vietnam

1959–1962: Cuba

1960s

1960–1965: Congo-Leopoldville

1960: Laos

1961: Dominican Republic

1961–1964: Brazil

1963: Iraq

1965–1967: Indonesia

1970s

1970: Cambodia

1970–1973: Chile

1971: Bolivia

1974–1991: Ethiopia

1975–1991: Angola

1975–1999: East Timor

1976: Argentina

1979–1992: Afghanistan

1980s

1980–1989: Poland

1981–1982: Chad

1981–1990: Nicaragua

1983: Grenada

1989–1994: Panama

1989: Paraguay

1991–present: Post-Cold War

1990s

1991: Iraq

1991: Haiti

1992–1996: Iraq

1994–1995: Haiti

1996–1997: Zaire

2000s

2000: FR Yugoslavia

2001–2021: Afghanistan

2003–2021: Iraq

2005: Kyrgyzstan

2006–2007: Palestinian Territories

2005–2009: Syria

2010s

2011: Libya

Further reading

Bibliography

Bibliography

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